We can probably appreciate what it means for a 20-year old to have passed a supreme test, to have done the impossible. In particular, they allow insiders to ignore just about anything that is done by members of other tribes, and to feel no scholarly guilt about doing so. The work on vision that I did that year was also more interesting than the work I had been doing in Jerusalem. I must also have been quite a pompous child. Amos was a night person, and I was a morning person. In the second version, one program will result in 400 deaths, the other has a 2/3 chance of 600 deaths and a 1/3 chance of no deaths. The natural response of a decision theorist to the Allais paradox, certainly in 1975 and probably even today, would be to search for a new set of axioms that have normative appeal and yet permit the non-linearity. Our interactions were so frequent and so intense that there was never much point in distinguishing between the discussions that primed an idea, the act of uttering it, and the subsequent elaboration of it. To eliminate the problem we proposed that decision-makers, prior to evaluating the prospects, perform an editing operation that collects similar outcomes and adds their probabilities. Attitudes toward speculative risks as an indicator of attitudes toward pure risks. His advice to them was to stick to what he called “meat-and-potatoes economics,” at least until their careers were secure. Dick showed how people segregate their decisions into separate accounts, then struggle to keep each of these accounts in the black. When reading the mathematical psychology textbook, I was puzzled by the fact that all the choice problems were described in terms of gains and losses (actually, almost always gains), whereas the utility functions that were supposed to explain the choices were drawn with wealth as the abscissa. We have assembled a multi-disciplinary team for an attempt to develop tools for measuring welfare, with the design specification that economists should be willing to take the measurements seriously. We now know that there was little substance to Goldstein’s assertions, but at the time the idea of basing conceptual distinctions on neurological observations was so thrilling that I seriously considered switching to medicine in order to study neurology. On narrow norms and vague heuristics: A rebuttal to Kahneman and Tversky (1996). I have almost never had that experience with anyone else. On each trial, a number 0< N* <15 is announced. When the occasion arises, I carefully explain that research on heuristics and biases only refutes an unrealistic conception of rationality, which identifies it as comprehensive coherence. There was no particular rhyme or reason to what I was doing, but I was having fun. “Let us take what the terrain gives” meant not over-reaching, not believing that setting a problem implies it can be solved. This was the beginning of a lifelong interest in the statistics of prediction and description. A young colleague and I recently reviewed the experimental literature, and concluded that the empirical controversy about the reality of cognitive illusions dissolves when viewed in the perspective of a dual-process model (Kahneman and Frederick, 2002). Some time after our return from Eugene, Amos and I settled down to review what we had learned about three heuristics of judgment (representativeness, availability, and anchoring) and about a list of a dozen biases associated with these heuristics. In one of our demonstrations of the availability heuristic, for example, we asked respondents to compare the frequency with which some letters appeared in the first and in the third position in words. But many bright young economists are now betting their careers on the expectation that the current trend will last. But although my parents loved most things French and had some French friends, their roots in France were shallow, and they never felt completely secure. The idea that people were conservative Bayesian did not seem to fit with the everyday observation of people commonly jumping to conclusions. Cohen, L.J. My recollection is that we achieved correlations of close to .30, in contrast to about .10 with the previous methods. I attribute the unusual attention at least as much to the medium as to the message. Mischel, W. (1961b). I was capitalizing on chance, but the technique had enough charm for one of my graduate-school teachers, the eminent personnel psychologist Edwin Ghiselli, to write it up in what became my first published article. One of his compelling examples was the couple who drove through a blizzard to a basketball game because they had already paid for the tickets, though they would have stayed at home if the tickets had been free. The indomitable serenity of his last few months is one. In these and in other experiments of the same kind (Schreiber and Kahneman, 2000), people make wrong choices between experiences to which they may be exposed, because they are systematically wrong about their affective memories Our evidence contradicts the standard rational model, which does not distinguish between experienced utility and decision utility. In the summer of 1958, my wife and I drove across the United States to spend a few months at the Austen Riggs Clinic in Stockbridge, Massachusetts, where I studied with the well-known psychoanalytic theorist David Rapaport, who had befriended me on a visit to Jerusalem a few years earlier. I looked at the 1975 draft recently, and was struck by how similar it is to the paper that was eventually published, and also by how different the two papers are. I wrote the thesis in eight days, typing directly on the purple “ditto” sheets that we used for duplication at the time. Two of us would watch the exercise, which often took half an hour or more. Kahneman, D. (1987). Instead, spending weeks and months on complex analyses using a manual Monroe calculator with a rather iffy handle, I invented a statistical technique for the analysis of multi-attribute heteroscedastic data, which I used to produce a complex description of the psychological requirements of the various units. The paper itself, by sharp contrast, was so convoluted and dreary that my teacher, Susan Ervin, memorably described the experience of reading it as “wading through wet mush.” I spent the summer of 1961 in the ophthalmology department, doing research on contour interference. However, he added the unusual remark that we seemed to bring out the worst in each other, and certainly should not collaborate. In accord with this rule, an episode of 60 seconds during which one hand is immersed in painfully cold water will leave a more aversive memory than a longer episode, in which the same 60 seconds are followed by another 30 seconds during which the temperature rises slightly. It came quite late, as we were preparing the final version of the paper. How did he do it? We spent a delightful year in which we did little but work on a single article. (1981). The participants then make simultaneous choices of whether or not to “enter.” Those who decide to enter announce their choice simultaneously. I turned my brown sweater inside out to walk the few blocks home. Daniel Kahneman Any other prediction seemed inconsistent with the evidence. Finally, the asymmetric consideration of gains and losses extends to the domain of moral intuitions, in which imposing losses and failing to share gains are evaluated quite differently. And I had friends. I took classes on Wittgenstein in the philosophy department. It took us a year. System 2 ‘knows” some of the rules that intuitive reasoning is prone to violate, and sometimes intervenes to correct or replace erroneous intuitive judgments. If the controversy is so simply resolved, why was it not resolved in 1971, or in 1974? The core ideas of that theory, he argued, were laid out in the seventh chapter of Freud’s “Interpretation of Dreams,” which sketches a model of mental energy (cathexis). Jews were required to wear the Star of David and to obey a 6 p.m. curfew. Amos thought that if you pick the terrain properly you won’t have to choose, because you can be precisely right. By that time I had decided, with some difficulty, that I would be a psychologist. The Nobel Prizes 2002, Editor Tore Frängsmyr, [Nobel Foundation], Stockholm, 2003. Clinical versus statistical prediction: A theoretical analysis and a review of the evidence. The task we set for ourselves was to account for observed preferences in the quaintly restricted universe within which the debate about the theory of choice has traditionally been conducted: monetary gambles with few outcomes (all positive), and definite probabilities. However, the problems were constructed so that the combination of choices that people made was actually dominated by the combination of the options they had rejected. Part 2 – Eulogy for Amos Tversky (June 5, 1996) We played the game a few times, once with the faculty of the psychology department at U.B.C. One of the problems involves gains and elicits a risk-averse choice; the other problem involves losses and elicits risk-seeking. Daniel Kahneman, (born March 5, 1934, Tel Aviv, Israel), Israeli-born psychologist, corecipient of the Nobel Prize for Economics in 2002 for his integration of psychological research into economic science. This made it natural for us to meet for lunch and a long afternoon together, and still have time to do our separate things.

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